About Authors:
Kiran K.Vaghasiya*, Alpesh J.Shiroya
Bhagwan Mahavir College Of Biotechnology ,
Surat
*vaghasiyakiran51@yahoo.co.in
Abstract
Green biotechnologydeals with the use of environmentally-friendly solutions as an alternative to traditional agriculture, horticulture, and animal breeding processes. An example is the designing of transgenic plants that are modified for improved flavor, for increased resistance to pests and diseases, or for enhanced growth in adverse weather conditions. Genetically enhanced crops are one tool that could contribute to a more harmonious balance between food production and our surrounding environment. The overall message is that biotech plants can, and already do, contribute positively to reducing CO2 emissions and anticipating the impact of climate change on food scarcity. This will increase as they are more widely adopted. This document aims to provide background information about the role green biotech currently plays, and can play in future, in helping to combat climate change.
Reference Id: PHARMATUTOR-ART-1461
INTRODUCTION
Biotechnology is any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use.[1] Today, the known applications for biotechnology can be seen as a spectrum.
White(Grey)Biotechnology
White biotechnology is applied to industrial processes. An important example is bioremediation by microbes where microbes are utilized to clean up toxic or hazardous industrial wastes in the environments, such as PCBs. A second example is the use of microbes to produce products for industrial use, such as the subtilisin enzymes now widely used in laundry detergents.
BlueBiotechnology
Blue Biotechnology is aquatic use of biological technology.
RedBiotechnology
Red biotechnology refers to medical applications of biotechnology, such as antibiotics and pharmaceuticals that are based on recombinant DNA technology.
Multicolored Biotechnology
Biotechnology is often interdisciplinary, and so many applications may be classified in more than one color category. For example, production of biodiesel fuel from agricultural or waste materials could be considered to be both white and green, or white and blue, biotechnology.
GreenBiotechnology
Green biotechnology refers to biological techniques to plants with the aim of improving the nutritional quality, quantity and production economics. such as production of disease-resistant or UV-resistant plants, or plants that have superior qualities, by means of genetic modification. Other examples include production of biofuels, such as ethanol or methane, from crops such as corn, or even from marine algae grown at land-based production facilities.
In 1996, the first genetically modified crops were cultivated in the USA. In 2009, 14 million farmers in 25 countries used GM crops, the overwhelming majority of whom (13 million) were small-scale farmers in developing and emerging countries. The annual global acreage has increased to more than 134 million hectares worldwide[2], Green biotechnology pays off economically. This can be seen in the rising number of farmers who opt for GM crops. GM seed tends to be more expensive – but in return, it reduces expenses in other areas, such as the cost of pesticides, machines and labor. But above all: yields generally increase considerably, because plants' own mechanisms protect them from harmful insects and more effective weed management reduces harvest losses which used to be considered inevitable. In 2010, after long political delay, another GM crop was approved for cultivation for the first time since 1998: the Amflora potato, with a modified starch composition exclusively processed in the starch industry.[3]
Green biotechnology involves the use of environmentally friendly solutions as an alternative to traditional industrial agriculture, horticulture and animal breeding processes.
- use of bacteria to facilitate the growth of plants
- development of pest-resistant grains
- engineering of plants to express pesticides
- use of bacteria to assure better crop yields instead of pesticides and herbicides
- production of superior plants by stimulating the early development of their root systems
- use of plants to remove heavy metals such as lead, nickel, or silver, which can then be extracted ("mined") from the plants
- genetic manipulation to allow plant strains to be frost-resistant
- use of genes from soil bacteria to genetically alter plants to promote tolerance to fungal pathogens
- use of bacteria to get plants to grow faster, resist frost and ripen earlier.
Green revolution
Worldwide agricultural productivity has benefited from two green revolutions that have brought crop varieties, allowing higher yields and able to tolerate stress and resist pests and diseases.[4]
The first green revolution
The first green revolution—from the early 1960s to 1975—introduced new varieties ofwheat, rice, and maize that doubled or tripled yields. The new varieties were highly susceptible to pest infestation and thus required extensive chemical spraying. But they were also responsive to high rates of fertilizer application under irrigation. But they were also responsive to high rates of fertilizer application under irrigation. So, large- and medium-scale farmers in regions with adequate irrigation facilities, easy access to credit, sufficient ability to undertake risks, and good market integration adopted the new varieties[5]But these requirements meant that the new technology bypassed most poor African farmers[6] [7]
The second green revolution
The second green revolution—from 1975 to the 1990s—sought to consolidate lessons from the first by developing crops with a wider range of traits desirable for less well endowed areas and smallholder farmers. These traits included tolerance to stress and resistance to pests and diseases.
The third green revolution
The third green revolution is the biotechnology or gene revolution. Biotechnology offers possibilities for further amplifying the achievements of the first and second green revolutions. Four areas in which biotechnology is likely to have significant impact .[8]
• Improving genome management (through use of molecular markers for quantitative trait improvement, introgression of new germ plasm into breeding lines, genetic diversity analysis, and parental selection).
• Enhancing genetic analysis (through introduction of new genes, directed mutagenesis, optimization of gene expression, and gene discovery).
• Quickening the pace of conventional plant research (through new biotechnological Techniques —conventional breeders must rely on phenotypic evaluation, which does not always accurately indicate the information present in a plant’s genome).
• Improving agricultural yields.
Green Biotechnology – introduction in three waves [9]
Green biotechnology covers the whole spectrum from more advantageous and simplified cultivation (input-traits), through improved quality of the plants for animal feed or food purposes (output-traits) down to production and the extraction of new, non-plant contents (molecular pharming).
The goals of breeding genetically modified plants correspond to those of conventional plant breeding: on the one hand quantitative (increase in yield) and qualitative improvements (taste, colour of the blooms, shelf-life, raw materials), and, on the other hand, an improvement in resistance against biotic (fungi, pests, viruses, bacteria, nematode worms) and a-biotic stress factors (cold, heat, wet, drought, salt content). In addition, the plant can also be used as a “bioreactor” to produce enzymes, antibodies, recombinant proteins or pharmaceutical active ingredients (molecular pharming).
1 input traits:
The expression “input-traits” refers to characteristics, which lead to an improvement in the properties of a crop from a farming point of view.
Generally, this involves resistance genes, which are introduced into a crop with the use of genetic engineering methods. These resistance genes allow tolerance to herbicides or protect from fungi, pests certain insect, disease and other harmful organisms.
Genetic modification means that resistance against specific harmful products has now been built in to crops such as maize, rape, soya and cotton.
NOW YOU CAN ALSO PUBLISH YOUR ARTICLE ONLINE.
SUBMIT YOUR ARTICLE/PROJECT AT articles@pharmatutor.org
Subscribe to PharmaTutor Alerts by Email
FIND OUT MORE ARTICLES AT OUR DATABASE
Herbicide resistance crops :
Herbicide resistanceis the inherent ability of a species to survive and reproduce following exposure to a dose of herbicide normally lethal to its wild type. [10]maize, oilseed rape and sugar beet – can give the farmer much more flexibility in controlling weeds.[11] Herbicide resistance is being used worldwide in cotton, potato, maize, soya, tobacco and wheat crops.
The resistance of the crop to herbicides means that prophylactic applications of herbicides, The advantage is that the soil is not bare, and therefore erosion through wind and water can be prevented. Genetically modified, herbicide-resistant plants have so far been bred to withstand the non-selective herbicides which currently dominate the market so that their behaviour in the environment is already well known. With the active ingredient glyphosate has been available on the market for 25 years,whereas glufosinate in the product has been sold worldwide since 1984. In both products, the active ingredient is absorbed through the green parts of the plant. These non-selective herbicides act by blocking enzymes. However, transgenetic plants, in which additional, extraneous genes have been transplanted, can neutralise the herbicidal effect. In the case of, the active ingredient glufosinate blocks the activity of a plant enzyme, so that toxic ammonia (NH3) accumulates both in the cultivar and the weeds. By contrast, if the cultivar now includes an additional gene (derived from a fungus), For example, tolerance to the herbicide glufosinate is conferred by the bacterial gene bar, which metabolizes the herbicide into a non-toxic compound the herbicide glufosinate is inactivated against it.[12] As a result, there is no accumulation of ammonia, so that the genetically modified plant can survive. However, the weed is killed off.
Insect resistance crops :
Insect resistance is the second most frequently used commercial trait in genetically modified crops after herbicide resistance. To date, the insect resistant transgenic plants that are commercially available are those expressing genes which code for Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) that produces a protein toxic to certain insects (of Lepidoptera, Coleoptera and Diptera families).
Bt Endotoxins and their Genes
Initially, Bt toxins were classified into 14 distinct groups and 4 classes classification based on their host range. .[13] These are:
· CryI (active against Lepidoptera [“Cry” stands for “crystalline” reflecting the crystalline appearance of the d-endotoxin; “Cry” is used to denote the protein whereas “cry” denotes the respective gene]),
· CryII (Lepidoptera and Diptera),
· CryIII (Coleoptera) and
· CryIV (Diptera. The amount of area being cultivated with these crops is rapidly increasing[14] and other genes coding for new Bt-toxins, lectins, proteinase or α-amylase inhibitors, and other insecticidal products have been successfully engineered in plants [15][16] Some of these plants are being tested at the field scale, such as peas (Pisum sativum) expressing the gene coding for common bean α-amylase inhibitors (αAIs) [17]
In order to make a cultivar resistant to pests, a gene of the soil bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is transplanted. This genetic modification protects the plants from pests by producing a toxin with the help of the Bt gene, which destroys the pest. As a result, insecticides are not required and loss of yield through pest damage can be prevented. Genetically modified maize, cotton and potato varieties are now being grown with inbuilt Bt genes worldwide.[11]
fungas resistance crops :
Fungal diseases have been one of the principal causes of crop losses ever since humans started to cultivate plants. [18]
Transgenics with antifungal molecules :
Antifungal compounds include antifungal proteins fromplants and lower organisms and metabolites like phytoalexins. Under certain conditions, both microorganisms and plantsproduce low mo1 wt, antimicrobial substances. In plants, such compounds known as phytoalexins are often synthesized locally and accumulate after exposure to pathogens and/or stresses. In many cases, a correlation has been found between the concentration of phytoalexins and resistance to specific pathogens. Recently, Háin and coworkers (1990) transferred a gene encoding stilbene synthase into tobacco.[19]
ANTIFUNGAL PROTEINS
Proteins with the ability to inhibit the growth of fungi in vitro are abundantly present in the plant kingdom. Whether they are involved in the defense against fungal infections in vivo is not known. This idea is supported by examples of transgenic tobacco plants that show enhanced resistance against the fungus Rhizoctonia solani,which is brought about by the constitutive expression of genes encoding proteins shown to have in vitro antifungal activity.[20]
Pathogenesis-related proteins:
VanLoon and Van Kammen showed that a set of proteins is induced in tobacco plants after tobacco mosaic virus infection10. These proteins were described as pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins.[21]
The first report on developing fungus-resistant transgenics came in 1991. Broglie et al. constitutively expressed bean chitinase gene in tobacco and Brassica napus and the plants showed enhanced resistance to Rhizoctonia solani.Chitinases and /3 -1,3-Glucanases are Pathogenesis-related proteins. [22]
Plant ribosome-inactivating proteins(RIPs) :
Plant ribosome inactivating proteins (RIPs) have N-glycosidase activity and they remove an adenine residue from 28S rRNA.[23]
RIPs do not affect ribosomes of plants in which they are produced and show various degrees of specificity toward ribosomes of other plants. Funga1 ribosomes can be targets of RIPs as well. In in vitro assays a barley RIP has a lower antifungal activity than chitinases or P-1,3-glucanases from barley. However, a strong synergy is observed when barleyRIP is mixed with either of these two hydrolases [24] Recently, a barley RIP gene under the control of a wound-inducible promoter was introduced into tobacco. RIprogeny showed an increased resistance to R. solani.[25]
Small cystein-rich proteins :
In addition to PR proteins, there are other plant proteins which have antifungal activities. A number of small cystein-rich proteins form a separate group of antifungal polypeptides. Some of these are chitin-binding proteins, plant defensins and thionins.
These include (a) recently identified seed proteins from Raphanus sativus[26] Amaranthus caudatus, and Mirabilis jalapa; (b) hevein, a lectin from Urtica dioica; and (c) thionins, which are antimicrobial peptides occumng in seeds and leaves of both mono- and dicotyledonous plants [27]
Phytoalexins :
Phytoalexins are antimicrobial low molecular weight secondary metabolites produced in plants following pathogen attack and are believed to have a role in plant defense[28] Hain and coworkers introduced the gene encoding stilbene synthase from grape vine[29] (Vitis vinifera) into tobacco plants.The expression of stilbene synthase (or resveratrol synthase) gene resulted in the production of resveratrol, a stilbene-type phytoalexin. Such transgenics showed enhanced resistance to B. cinerea. Similar transgenic plants were developed in rice, tomato, barley and wheat and were shown to have increased resistance to Magnaporthe grisea, P. infestans and B. cinerea respectively[30] [31] [32]
Virus resistance crops :
Viruses cause many diseases in plants and lead to loss of yield. There are no direct ways of fighting virus infections in plants using conventional crop protection.The method generally used is to fight the insects that transmit the viruses(stinging or sucking insects, such as aphids), instead of the viruses themselves by chemical means. In a number of crops, transgenics resistant to an infective virus have been developed by introducing a sequence of the viral genome in the target crop by genetic transformation. Virus-resistant transgenics have been developed in many crops by introducing by some proteins.these are follows
Coat protein:
The use of viral CP as a transgene for producing virus resistant plants is one of the most spectacular successes achieved in plant biotechnology. Numerous crops have been transformed to express viral CP and have been reported to show high levels of resistance in comparison to untransformed plants first reported resistance against TMV in transgenic tobacco expressing the TMV CP gene[33]. The resistance was manifested as delayed appearance of symptoms as well as a reduced titre of virus in the infected transgenic plants, as compared to the controls. The resistance against TMV using TMV CP in tobacco was also reported to be effective against other tobamoviruses whose CP was closely related to that of TMV but not effective against viruses which were distantly related to TMV[34]
Movement protein :
Movement proteins (MP) are essential for cell-to-cellmovement of plant viruses. These proteins have been shown to modify the gating function of plasmodesmata, thereby allowing the virus particles or their nucleoprotein derivatives to spread to adjacent cells. This phenomenon was first used to engineer resistance against TMV in tobacco by producing modified MP which are partially active as a transgene.[35].[36]. In contrast to the single MP gene in tobamoviruses, viral movement is mediated by a set of three overlapping genes, known as the triple-gene-block (TGB) in potex-, carla- and hordeiviruses[37].
Satellite RNA:
Besides using the genomic components of an infectious virus, a strategy exploiting the use of satellite RNA associated with certain viruses received great attention. Some strains of CMV encapsidate satellite RNA (sat RNA) in addition to the tripartite messenger sense, single-stranded RNA genome. transgenic tobacco plants expressing multiple or partial copies of CMV sat-RNA showed attenuated symptoms when challenged with CMV[38].
The virus resistance crops is produced by transplanting a gene that carries the genetic information for the virus’s membrane protein. If the plant itself produces the viral membrane protein, then the virus can no longer get in, and the plant has become resistant to the virus.
2 output traits(Agronomic traits):
theplant is modified to withstandimproved qualitative contents, or so-called output-traits. These are quality or product features of the plant. They can be improve amino acid or oil composition, increase shelf life, eliminate undesirable antigens or supply additional vitamin and minerals. The goal of quality or output-traits is thus to improve the quality of agricultural products. This is important in so far as these products can be used directly as food or as the starting point for the food and animal feed industry, or serve as industrial raw materials. Output-traits will therefore offer advantages primarily to processing companies and consumers. Specific amino acids, which are used as building blocks in proteins, are essential in food, as they cannot be produced by the body itself and therefore have to be absorbed from food. Maize, for example, as a low content of the amino acids lysine and methionine. Attempts are being made to increase the nutritional value of important basic foods and animal feed such as maize, soya beans and rape, with the help of genetic engineering by increasing the essential amino acid contents.[9]
3 molecular farming :
Plant molecular farming is the use of genetically modified plants to produce pharmaceutical products or industrial chemicals.[39]If plants are used not only for food or animal feed, but also as „bio factories“ for the production of specific active ingredients, such as antibodies, vaccines, recombinant proteins or pharmaceuticals, then the term “molecular farming” is used.[9] In principle, genetic engineering can be used to introduce any proteins into plants as required.. A broad range of plant species used for the PMF including alfa alfa, Arabidopsis,banana carrot ,maize, rice, potato,sugar cane, tomato tobacco,wheat etc.
Somatotropin & Glucocerebrosidase drug obtained from Tobacco, Cholera vaccines from Potato, Malaria vaccines from Tobacco[39]
Contribution of green biotechnology to the environments in helping to combat climate change :
Climate change threatens all elements essential for life, such as water, food, health, environment and land. The temperatures could increase by 2 to 3 degrees in the next fifty years, leading to a catastrophic scenario at the end of the century with a 5 to 8 degree increase forecast, if nothing is done. This is a dramatic scenario whose most obvious symptom would be the change in weather conditions; more heat waves, storms and floods caused by melting glaciers (which could affect more than 30% of the world’s agricultural lands)[40]
The three major contributions of greenbiotechnologyto the mitigation of the impact of climate change are:
A. Greenhouse gas reduction
B. Crops adaptation
C. Protection and increase yield with less surface[40]
Greenhouse Gas Reduction
Agriculture is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions[41]. Agricultural practices - such as deforestation, cattle feedlots and fertilizer use - currently account for about 25% of greenhouse gas emissions. Agriculture accounts for 14% of CO2 emission. Agriculture is also a major source of methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O), with latest estimates showing that it accounts for 48% of methane emissions and 52% of N2O emissions
NOW YOU CAN ALSO PUBLISH YOUR ARTICLE ONLINE.
SUBMIT YOUR ARTICLE/PROJECT AT articles@pharmatutor.org
Subscribe to PharmaTutor Alerts by Email
FIND OUT MORE ARTICLES AT OUR DATABASE
Solutions:
1. Less fuel consumption on farm :
GMOs can help decrease the necessity and frequency of spraying. Genetic engineering crops have highly helped farmers to adopt less intensive agricultural methods such as reduced tillage or no tillage. For example, GM Insect Resistant Crops have been developed to resist insects and to use fewer insecticide treatments. This consequently leads to a reduction of fuel used by farmers when they spray pesticides on their fields, which means a saving in carbon dioxide emissions. Barfoot and Brookes[42], study indicates that in terms of greenhouse gases, each litre of tractor diesel consumed contributes an estimated 2.75 kg of CO2 into the atmosphere. According to a more recent report from Barfoot and Brookes[143], The adoption of reduced tillage or no tillage systems in respect of fuel use results in reductions of carbon dioxide emissions of 89.44 kg/ha and 40.43 kg/ha respectively.
Reduced fertilizer use :
Nitrous oxide has a global warming potential of 296, meaning it has a global warming potential (GWP) about 300 times greater than carbon dioxide — this means that 1 pound of nitrous oxide is counted as 296 pounds of CO2. In addition, nitrous oxides stay in the atmosphere for more than 100 years. The formation and release of N2O from agricultural fields happens when nitrogen fertilizer applied to crops interacts with common soil bacteria. It is estimated that nitrogen fertilizer accounts for one-third of the GHGs produced by agriculture[44], Reduced fertilizer use will mean less nitrogen pollution of ground and surface waters.
The company, Arcadia Biosciences, has developed GM rice and canola that uses Nitrogen more efficiently, so the plants need less fertilizer. Arcadia's Nitrogen Use Efficiency (NUE) technology produces plants with yields that are equivalent to Conventional varieties but which require significantly less nitrogen fertilizer because they use it more efficiently.[45]This technology has the potential to reduce the amount of Nitrogen fertilizer that is lost by farmers every year due to leaching into the air, soil and waterways. In addition to environmental pressures, nitrogen costs can represent a Significant portion of a farmer's input costs and can significantly impact farmer profitability.
B. Crops adaptation[46]
Solutions must be developed to adapt crops to new conditions, such as other types of soils or harsher conditions as drought and salinity. Climate change poses a real challenge in terms of available agricultural land and fresh water use. The agricultural sector uses a huge amount of available fresh water - 70% of the water currently consumed by humans is used in agriculture, and this is likely to increase as temperatures rise. Moreover, 24.7 million acres of farmland worldwide are lost each year due to salinity caused by unsustainable irrigation techniques. In a warmer climate, plants will react to stresses, such as drought, by consuming large quantities of energy which is normally used for growth and seed Production.
Green biotechnology offers solutions that could help farmers facing this challenge. This is absolutely essential for farmers in developing countries as well as in some developed countries where yields would be affected substantially. Genetic modification is already being used to develop crops tolerant to drought conditions. Indeed, a number of crop varieties have been developed which are stress tolerant. Tolerance to abiotic stress like water shortage and salinity is complex but promising results have been obtained in model plants and are being transferred to important food species in field conditions. Maize, wheat and rice would be the first important crops benefiting from these emerging technologies.[47] The first biotech maize varieties with drought tolerance are expected to be commercialized by around 2011 and the trait has already been incorporated in several other crops [48]
C. Protection and increase yield with less surface
It is likely that with temperature rises and desertification, land area available for farming will be reduced. Moreover, populations are rapidly increasing. By 2025, there will be 2.5 billion more people than today. This population boom will result in a 35% increase in demand for food supplies. According to a United Nations report, farmers will need to at least double their production over the next 25 years to feed all these people[49] More than two-fifths of the 55% increase in the world's meat consumption between 1997 and 2020 is expected to occur in China, according to the International Food Policy Research Institute[50]. The major aim of agricultural biotechnology is to enhance agricultural productivity and maximise the productive capacity of our diminishing resources.
Sustainable agricultural practices
One of the early successes of biotechnology has been the ability to insert genes from a naturally occurring soil bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), into maize, cotton, and other crops to impart internal protection from insect feeding. For many farmers, Bt crops are proving to be a valuable tool for integrated pest management programs by giving growers new pest control choices. This is the case for fungal diseases which are a real problem for farmers in maize and cereal cultivation. Not only do they cause yield losses,some fungi can also produce toxic substances, the so-called “mycotoxin”. There are over 300 different known toxins, each with specific effects. For example, the level of fumonisin, one of those 300 toxins, is associated with oesophageal cancer and neural tube defects. Bt maize is a powerful tool to reduce the level of fumonisin which could have significant benefits in developing countries, especially where unprocessed maize is a key part of the diet.[51] In France,
Orama, a trade association in the agricultural sector, found out that the average gain of Bt maize was about 9.2 quintal per hectare compared to conventional maize by studying
13 plots of Bt maize field in France in 2005. [52] .
Increased yield to address tomorrow’s challenges
Science and technology must spearhead agricultural production in the next 30 years at a pace faster than the Green Revolution did during the past three decades, Dr. Diouf DrJacques Diouf, Director-General Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations(FAO) asserted. Farmers need to produce more food than ever before. Each year, globalpopulation grows by more than 73 million. This is only slightly less than adding a population the size of Germany’s each year. As a result, world population is expected to reach 7 billion by 2013 and 8 billion by 2028. And, as people in developing countries attain higher levels of education and income, the demand for higher-quality food increases. The combined effect of population gains and income gains around the world is projected to increase the demand for food 55 percent by 2030. Biotechnology and advances in breeding are helping agriculture achieve higher yields and meet the needs of an expanding population with limited land and water resources. Production of primary food and feed crops — maize, wheat, rice and oilseeds — has increased by 21 percent[53].
The applications of green biotechnology :
Green biotechnology which is more commonly known as Plant Biotechnology is a rapidly expanding field within Modern biotechnology. Use of environment friendly and cost effective alternatives to industrial chemicals such as bio fuels, bio fertilizers and bio pesticides are not only resulting in enhanced crop output, improvement in health and safety standards, these new products are also leading to less environment pollution and use of green technology.
The applications of green biotechnology can be found in two distinct areas:
Agricultural Biotechnology :
refers to the application of biotechnology techniques in crop improvement.
Today Agricultural biotechnology encompasses the following main areas of research and application:
Plant tissue culture:
A technique that allows whole plants to be produced from minute amounts of plant parts like the roots, leaves or stems or even just a single plant cell under laboratory conditions.[54].
Plant genetic engineering:
The selective, deliberate transfer of beneficial gene(s) from one organism to another to create new improved crops. The American Society of Plant Biologists (ASPB) submits this statement supporting the continued, responsible use of new technologies, such as recombinant DNA technology (hereafter referred to as "genetic engineering” or “GE"), which can add effective tools to those needed to combat hunger and maintain a healthy environment.
The use of GE to modify plants represents a significant advance in plant science, Modified crops resulting from plant biotechnology are also expected to provide major health benefits to people throughout the world. Examples include enhancing the vitamin and mineral content of staple foods .[55] eliminating common food allergens,[56] [57] developing higher protein quality and quantity in widely consumed crops [58] and modifying plants to contain vaccines against many illnesses[59]
GE plants are also expected to be useful in nonfood applications, such as phytoremediation [60] where plants remove contaminating pollutants from soils and water resources and serve as biofactories to create compounds presently made using nonrenewable resources, e.g., industrial oils and fuels.
There are following method of gene transfer
1. Direct methods
-protoplast microinjection
-particle bombardment
-protoplast polyethyleneglycol (PEG) method
-protoplast electroporation
2. Agrobacterium -mediated transformation
Agrobacterium tumefaciens
Agrobacterium rhizogenes (Hairy Root)
Environmental Biotechnology:
Environmental Biotechnology refers to the application of biotechnological processes in the protection and restoration of environmental quality. Currently, environmental biotechnology is being applied in cleaning up pollution, waste water treatment, air purification and waste gases treatment, as it is the case of bioremediation, the use of biological systems to clean up air pollution and contaminated soil or water. Industry is developing more and more processes in this prevention area to reduce environmental impact.
Biofertilizer:
To reduce the impact of excess chemical fertilizers in the field of agriculture the biofertilizer is a potential tool, biologically fixed nitrogen is such a source which can supply an adequate amount of Nitrogen to plants and other nutrients to some extent. Many free living and symbiotic bacteria which fix atmospheric Nitrogen were used as biofertiliser material as a substitute for Nitrogen fertilizer. In general two types of biofertiliser are used
1. Bacterial Biofertilizer
2. Algal Biofertilizer
NOW YOU CAN ALSO PUBLISH YOUR ARTICLE ONLINE.
SUBMIT YOUR ARTICLE/PROJECT AT articles@pharmatutor.org
Subscribe to PharmaTutor Alerts by Email
FIND OUT MORE ARTICLES AT OUR DATABASE
Conclusion :
Biotechnology offers rich opportunities to increase agricultural productivity. It accelerates plant and animal breeding efforts. It offers solutions to previously intractable problems. Need to develop appropriate national policies and identify key national priorities for biotechnology, bearing in mind the potential biological risks and the needs of poor people who rely on agriculture for their livelihoods. And the international community needs to loosen the arrangements for access to proprietary technology—enabling developing countries to provide poor farmers with improved seeds while protecting them from inappropriate restrictions on propagating their crops.
Acknowledgment :
Dr. R. Krishnamurthy Director of bhagwan mahavir college of M.sc. biotechnology, vesu- surat.
References :
1 "The Convention on Biological Diversity (Article 2. Use of Terms)." United Nations. 1992. Retrieved on February 6, 2008
2 Worldwide cultivation areas of genetically modified plants: ISAAA, Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/GM Crops: 2009
3 JRC Scientific and Technical Reports (2008): Adoption and performance of the first GM crop introduced in EU agriculture: Bt maize in Spain
4 Realizing the Promise of Green Biotechnology for the Poor —Norman Borlaug, Winner of the 1970 Nobel Peace Prize (Wall Street Journal, 13 May 2002)
5 de Janvry, A., G. Graff, E. Sadoulet, and D. Zilberman. 1999. “Agricultural Biotechnology and Can the Potential Be Made a Reality?” University of Rome Conference on the Shape of the Coming Biotechnology Transformation: Strategic Investment and Policy Approaches from an Economic Perspective, Rome, 17–19 June.
6 Ongaro, W. A. 1990. “Modern Maize Technology, Yield Variations and Efficiency Differentials: A Case of Small Farms in Western Kenya.” Eastern Africa Economic Review 6 (1): 11–30.
7 David, C. C., and K. Otsuka, eds. 1994. Modern Rice Technology and Income Distribution in Asia. Los Baños, Philippines: International Rice Research Institute.
8 Morris, M. L., R. Jean-Marcel, K. Mirelle, and K. A. Drehe. 2001. “Potential Impacts of Biotechnology: Assisted Selection in Plant Breeding Programs in Developing Countries.” In P. G. Pardey, ed., The Future of Food. Washington, D.C.: International Food Policy Research Institute.
9 Dr. Heinz Müller , Martin Rödiger In focusGreen Biotechnology Published by:DZ BANK Deutsche Zentral-Genossenschaftsbank Research Platz der Republik 60265 Frankfurt
10 Maxwell, B.C.; Rough, M.L. and Radosevich, S.R. 1990. Predicting the evolution and dynamics of herbicide resistance in weed populations. Weed Tech., 4 : 2-13
11 Environmental benefits of genetically modified crops: Global and European perspectives on their ability to reduce pesticide use, published in the Journal of Animal and Feed Sciences (2002) Volume 11, pp. 1-18.Dr R. H. Phipps, Department of Agriculture, University of Reading.
12 Thompson, C. J., Movva, N. R., Tizard, R., Crameri, R., Davies, J. V., Lauwereys, M. and Botterman, J., Characterization of the herbicide- resistance gene bar from Streptomyces hygroscopicus. EMBO J., 1987, 6, 2519–2523.
13 Höfte, H. and H.R. Whiteley. 1989. Insecticidal crystal proteins in Bacillus thuringiensis. Micorbiology Review 53:242-255.
14 James, C., 2002. Global status of commercialised transgenic crops: 2002. ISAAA Briefs, no. 27. EuroCenter, Northwich, UK. pp. 1–24.
15 Schuler, T.H., G.M. Poppy, B.R. Kerry and I. Denholm, 1998. Insect-resistant transgenic plants. Trends Biotech. 16: 168–175.
16 Jouanin, L.,M. Bonade-Bottino, C. Girard, G.Morrot and M. Giband, 1998. Transgenic plants for insect resistance. Plant Sci. 131: 1–11.
17 Morton, R.L., H.E. Schroeder, K.S. Bateman, M.J. Chrispeels, E. Armstrong and T.J.V. Higgins, 2000. Bean alpha-amylase anhibitor 1 in transgenic peas (Pisum sativum) provides complete protection from pea weevil (Bruchus pisorum) under field conditions. P. Natl. Acad. Sci. 97: 3820–3825.
18 Ben j. C. Cornelissen* and Leo S. Melchers Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Section of Plant Pathology, University of Amsterdam, Kruislaan 31 8, 1098 SM Amsterdam, The Netherlands (B.J.C.C.); and MOGEN lnternational nv, Einsteinweg 97, 2333 CB Leiden, The Netherlands (L.S.M.)
19 Hain R, Bieseler B, Kindl H, Schroder G, Stocker R (1990) Expression of a stilbene synthase gene in Nicotiana tabacum results in synthesis of the phytoalexin resveratrol. Plant Mo1 Biol 15: 325-335
20 Broglie K, Chet I, Holliday M, Cressman R, Biddle Ph, Knowlton S, Mauvais CJ, Broglie R (1991) Transgenic plants with enhanced resistance to the fungal pathogen Rhizoctonia solani. Science 254: 1194-1197
21 Van Loon, L. C. and Van Kammen, A., Virology, 1970, 40, 199–211.
22 Broglie, K. et al., Science, 1991, 254, 1194–1197
23 Stirpe F, Barbieri L, Battelli LG, Soria M, Lappi DA (1992) Ribosome- inactivating proteins from plants: present status and future prospects. Biotechnology 10: 405-412
24 Leah R, Tommerup H, Svendsen I, Mundy J (1991) Biochemical and molecular characterization of three barley seed proteins with antifungal properties. J Biol Chem 266 1464-1573
25 Logemann J, Jach G, Tommerup H, Mundy J, Schell J (1992)
Expression of a barley ribosome-inactivating protein leads to increased fungal protection in transgenic tobacco plants. Biotechnology 10 305-308
26 Terras FRG, Schoofs HME, De Bolle MFC, Van Leuven F, Rees SB, Vanderleyden J, Cammue BPA, Broekaert WF (1992) Analysis of two nove1 classes of plant antifungal proteins from radish (Raphanus sativus L.) seeds. J Biol Chem 267: 15301-15309
27 Broekaert WF, Marlen W, Terras FRG, De Bolle MFC, Proost P, Van Damme J, Dillen L, Cleas M, Rees SB, Vanderleyden J, Cammue BPA (1992) Antimicrobial peptides from Amaranthus caudatus seeds with sequence homology to the cysteine/glycinerich domain of chitin-binding proteins. Biochemistj 31: 4308-4314
28 Hammerschmidt, R., Annu. Rev. Phytopathol., 1999, 37, 285–306
29 Hain, R. H. J. et al., Nature, 1993, 361, 153–156.
30 Stark-Lorenzen, P., Nelke, B., Hanssler, G., Muhlbach and Thomzik, J. E., Plant Cell Rep., 1997, 16, 668–673.
31. Thomzik, J. E., Stenzel, K., Stocker, R., Schreier, P. H., Hain, R. and Stahl, D. J., Physiol. Mol. Plant Pathol., 1997, 51, 265–278.
32. Leckband, G. and Lorz, H., Theor. Appl. Genet., 1998, 96, 1004– 1012.
33 Powell-Abel, P., Nelson, R. S., De, B., Hoffman, N., Rogers, S. G., Fraley, R. T. and Beachy, R. N., Science, 1986, 236, 738–743.
34 Masuta, C., Tanaka, H., Uehara, K., Kuwata, S., Koiwai, A. and Noma, M., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., USA, 1995, 13, 6117–6121.
35 Malyshenko, S. I., Kondakova, O. A., Nazarova, J. U. V., Kaplan, I. B., Taliansky, M. E. and Atabekov J. G., J. Gen. Virol., 1993, 74, 1149–1156.
36 Lapidot, M., Gafny, R., Ding, B., Wolf, S., Lucas, W. J., Beachy, R. N., Plant J., 1993, 4, 959–970.
37 Seppanen, P., Puska, R., Honkanen, J., Tyulkina, L. G., Fedorkin, O., Morozov, S. Y. U. and Atabekov, J. G., J. Gen. Virol., 1997, 78, 1241–1246.
38 Baulcombe, D. C., Saunders, G. R., Bevan, M. W., Mayo, M. A. and Harrison, B. D., Nature, 1986, 321, 446–449.
39 Plant molecular farmingFACT SHEET SERIES ON INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGIES - 2006
40 Stern Review on the economics of climate change, HM Treasury, 2006 Green Biotechnology and Climate Change – 27.01.2009
41 “Environment and agriculture”, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2007)
42 GM crops: global socio-economic and environmental impacts 1996-2006, Barfoot, P. and Brookes, G. (2008)
43 GM crops: the first ten years - Global socio-economic and environmental impacts, Barfoot, P. and Brookes, G. (2006)
44 Stern Review on the economics of climate change, HM Treasury, 2006
45 arcadiabio.com/
46 “Coping with water scarcity in developing countries: what role for agricultural biotechnologies?” FAO, 2007
47 “Biotech companies race for drought-tolerant crops”, Reuters, 2008
48 “Biotech companies race for drought-tolerant crops”, Reuters, 2008
49“State of World Population 2001," Chapter 2, Environment Trends, Moving Towards Food Security subhead”, United Nations Population Fund, Nov. 7, 2001
50“World Food Prospects: Critical issues for the early twenty-first century”, International Food Policy Research Institute, 1999
51 “Bt maize in Spain—the performance of the EU’s first GM crop,” Nature, April 2008
52 “Gm Maize in the field : conclusive results”, Orama, 2007
53 fao.org/
54 oxfordtextbooks.co.uk/orc/slaterplants2e
55 Ye, X., S. Al-Babili, A. Klöti, J. Zhang, P. Lucca, P. Beyer, and I. Potrykus. 2000. Engineering provitamin A (-carotene) biosynthetic pathway into (carotenoid-free) rice endosperm. Science 287:303-305.
56 Buchanan, Bob B. 2001. Genetic Engineering and the Allergy Issue. Plant Physiology 126 (May): 5-7.
57 Cho, M. J., J. H. Wong, C. Marx, W. Jiang, P. G. Lemaux, and B. B. Buchanan. 1999. Overexpression of thioredoxin h leads to enhanced activity of starch debranching enzyme (pullulanase) in barley grain. PNAS 96: 14641-14646.
58 Wu, Rongling, Xiang-Yang Lou, Chang-Xing Ma, Xuelu Wang, Brian A. Larkins, and George Cassella. 2002. An improved genetic model generates highresolution mapping of QTL for protein quality in maize endosperm. PNAS 99: 11281-11286.
59 Arntzen, Charles J. 1997. High-tech herbal medicine: Plant-based vaccines. Nature Biotechnology 15 (March 1): 221-222.
60 Meagher, R. B.. Plants tackle explosive contamination. National Biotechnology. In Press. 2006
NOW YOU CAN ALSO PUBLISH YOUR ARTICLE ONLINE.
SUBMIT YOUR ARTICLE/PROJECT AT articles@pharmatutor.org
Subscribe to PharmaTutor Alerts by Email
FIND OUT MORE ARTICLES AT OUR DATABASE
.png)
