ADDITIVES USED IN THE FOOD PRODUCTS

About Authors:
Amit A. Patel , Dr.Vipin Kukkar, Sanjeev Thacker
Seth G. L. Bihani S.D. College of Technical Education,
Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Drug Research,
Sri Ganganagar, Rajasthan, INDIA.

ABSTRACT:
Food additives have been much important in food product manufacturing. Additive” became almost synonymous with “adulteration. Food additives are used in the food product toprovide nutrition,to maintain product quality and freshness, to look good. There are many type of food additives are available in the market like anti-oxidants, preservatives,Emulsifier and stabilizers,Sweetener, etc.The “E” number system, intended to assist as a short code for some of the lengthier chemical names and to indicate common European safety approval.

Reference ID: PHARMATUTOR-ART-1257

1.     INTRODUCTION:
The role of food additives in food manufacture has been much maligned and misunderstood in recent years. Additives fell victim to bad press to the extent that, at the height of the anti-“E” numbers campaign in the 1980s, the word “additive” became almost synonymous with “adulteration.
The catalyst for the 1980s focus on additives was a change in labeling legislation in 1986, which required the detailing of each individual additive in the ingredients list of most pre-packed products. Until that time, the use of additives had been indicated by reference to a generic functional group, such as“ preservatives”, “antioxidants” and “colours”. The new labelling requirements resulted in the appearance on some food labels of some very long lists of additives, including some lengthy chemical names. Some products looked as though they were nothing more than a couple of simple ingredients held together by a dictionary of chemical substances. The “E” number system, intended to assist as a short code for some of the lengthier chemical names and to indicate common European safety approval.
The interest in, and fear of, what was being put into food spawned a number of books on additives, their use in food, potential (harmful) effects and protocols for their safety approval, along with the author’s specific treatise on the subject. Some were informative, intended to assist the consumer in understanding what additives were, how they were produced, why they were used and how to avoid them, if desired. Others were more politically motivated and used the fashionable attack on additives as an illustration of all that was bad about the food industry and the allegedly secretive systems of safety assessment of all chemicals and processes used in food production. The implication was that any chemicals added to food, either as pesticides in primary production or additives in processing, were suspect.
Direct food additives, which are discussed in this publication, are those that have intentionally been included for a functional purpose by the food processor, whereas indirect additives are those migrating into food products in very small quantities as a result of growing, processing or packaging²

2.     PURPOSE OF FOOD ADDITIVE IN FOOD PRODUCTS
To provide nutrition – to improve or maintain the nutritional quality of food. For example,the addition of iodine to salt has contributed to the virtual elimination of simple goiter.  
The addition of Vitamin D to milk and other dairy products has accomplished thesame thing with respect to rickets.
To maintain product quality and freshness – fresh foods do not stay that way for long periods of time; they rapidly deteriorate, turn rancid and spoil. Food additives delay significantly this deterioration and prevent spoilage caused by growth of microorganisms, bacteria and yeast and also by oxidation (oxygen in air coming into contact with the foods). For example, if you were to cut slices of fresh fruits such as apples, bananas or pears, they would rapidly turn brown as a result of this oxidation process. However, placing these slices in juice from lemons, limes or oranges can stop this process.
To aid in the processing and preparation of foods – additives impart and/or maintain certain desirable qualities associated with various foods. For example, we expect salad dressings to stay mixed once they have been shaken. Emulsifiers such as lecithin from soybeans maintain mixture and improve texture in dressings and other foods. They are used in ice cream where smoothness is desired, in breads to increase volume and impart fine grain quality, and in cake mixes to achieve better consistency.
To make foods appealing – the majority of food additives are most often used for this purpose. Unless foods look appetizing and appeal to our senses, they will most likely go uneaten and valuable nutrients will be lost. Food additives such as flavoring agents and enhancers, coloring agents and sweeteners are included by food processors because we demand foods that look and taste good.³

3.     E  number
The E number is code used to identify food additives. This coding system is used on food manufacturing in European Economic Community (ECC) countries.¹

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4.     TYPES OF FOOD ADDITIVES
Many food additives are obtained from the natural product. However , alots of synthetic food additives are from coal tar chemical.

4.1  Antioxidants:
Antioxidants are our first line of defense against free radical damage, and are critical for maintaining optimum health and wellbeing. The need for antioxidants becomes even more critical with increased exposure to free radicals.
An unbound compound (i.e., free) having one or more unpaired electrons is called free radical.
Oxygen  is a highly reactive atom that is capable of becoming part of potentially damaging molecules commonly called “free radicals.” Free radicals are capable of attacking the healthy cells of the body, causing them to lose their structure and function.
Antioxidants are capable of stabilizing, or deactivating, free radicals before they attack cells. Antioxidants are absolutely critical for maintaining optimal cellular and systemic health and well-being.²

Reactive oxygen species
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) is a term which encompasses all highly reactive, oxygen-containing molecules, including free radicals. Types of ROS include the hydroxyl radical, the superoxide anion radical, hydrogen peroxide, singlet oxygen, nitric oxide radical, hypochlorite radical, and various lipid peroxides. All are capable of reacting with membrane lipids, nucleic acids, proteins and enzymes, and other small molecules, resulting in cellular damage.

Antioxidant protection
To protect the cells and organ systems of the body against reactive oxygen species, humans have evolved a highly sophisticated and complex antioxidant protection system. It involves a variety of components, both endogenous and exogenous in origin, that function interactively and synergistically to neutralize free radicals.These components include:
• Nutrient-derived antioxidants like ascorbic acid (vitamin C), tocopherols and  tocotrienols (vitamin E), carotenoids, and other  low molecular weight compounds such as glutathione and lipoic acid.
• Antioxidant enzymes, e.g., superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione  reductase, which catalyze free radical quenching reactions.

oxidative stress
The term “oxidative stress” has been coined to represent a shift towards the pro-oxidants in the pro-oxidant/antioxidant balance that can occur as a result of an increase in oxidative metabolism. Increased oxidative stress at the cellular level can come about as a consequence of many factors, including exposure to alcohol, medications, trauma, cold, infections, poor diet, toxins, radiation, or strenuous physical activity. Protection against all of these processes is dependent upon the adequacy of various antioxidant substances that are derived either directly or indirectly from the diet. Consequently, an inadequate intake of antioxidant nutrients may compromise antioxidant potential, thus compounding overall oxidative stress.
Oxidative damage to DNA, proteins, and other macromolecules has been implicated in the pathogenesis of a wide variety of diseases, most notably heart disease and cancer.14 A growing body of animal and epidemiological studies as well as clinical intervention trials suggest that antioxidants may play a pivotal role in preventing or slowing the progression of both heart disease and some forms of cancer.⁴

4.2  Preservatives:
Preservatives are probably the single most important class of additives, as they play an important role in the safety of the food supply . certain foods like fruits and vegetables are prevented from getting spoilt for a long period of time. The colour, taste and nutritive value of the food is also preserved.
The definition says preventing foods from getting spoilt. When you keep fruits, vegetables or left over dal in therefrigerator or in a cool place, will this be called food preservation? No, because youcan store fruits and vegetables or left over dal in this state for a few days only.

The definition of food preservation states that the preserved food should retain their colour and taste. This means that the colour and taste of food which is present at thetime of preservation should not change. Let us take the example of preserving grapesas raisins. Raisins are prepared by sun drying grapes. During the drying process thegrapes change colour from green to brown, and taste, sweeter. However, once theyare dried and stored, they do not change colour or taste.
Like colour and taste, a well preserved food should not change texture. When your mother makes mango murraba at home, have you observed the texture of the mango pieces? It is firm . In a well made murraba, this firmness of mango pieces should not change after sometime.

Why do foods get spoilt? If you know the reasons of food spoilage, you can remove these conditions while preserving food items. Foods get spoilt mainly due to the presence of micro organisms, enzymes (present in foods), insects, worms, and rats. Let us discuss these factors in some more detail.
1.      Presence of micro-organisms: Micro means small. Micro organisms are very small organisms which cannot be easily seen. Micro-organisms spoil food items when the condition for their growth are appropriate. What are these appropriate conditions? Like all living beings micro-organisms require air, moisture, right temperature and food to grow and multiply. The situations which provide appropriate conditions for growth of micro-organisms, can be listed as.
- Food having high moisture content
-Air around the food containing micro organisms
- Foods kept for a long time at room temperature
-Skin of fruits and vegetables getting damaged, thus exposing the food to micro organisms.
- Foods with low salt, sugar or acid content.
If you want to prevent spoilage of foods by micro organisms, you must remove the conditions mentioned above.
2. Presence of enzymes: Enzymes are chemical susbtances found in all plants and animals. Are enzymes harmful to foods? No, enzymes help in ripening of fruits and vegetables. A raw green mango after a few days becomes sweet in taste and yellow in colour due to the enzymes action. What will happen if you keep this yellow, ripe mango for a few more days? It will become soft, develop black spots and will start smelling bad. This is due to continued action of enzymes. No one likes to eat such as over ripe, spoilt mango. You know that even when the skin of fruits is not cut or damaged, it gets spoilt. This is due to enzyme action.
3.Insects, worms and rats: Have you noticed small brownish black insects or small white worms in rice and dals? These insects eat the food grains. They make small holes in the grain and at times convert the grain to a fine powder. The food grain thus become unfit for human consumption.⁶

.Types of preservatives
There are two types of preservatives:
(1) Natural Preservatives: Salt, sugar, lemon juice, vinegar, oil and spices are natural preservatives.
(2) Chemical preservatives: Potassium metabisulphate, citric acid and sodium benzoate are chemical preservatives.

 natural preservatives.
(a)Salt: When you make pickle at home, salt is one of the ingredients used. Did you think that salt is added only for taste? Besides adding to taste, salt has a specific function, i.e., to act as a preservative. If the proportion of salt in pickles is less, it can get spoilt after sometime.
How does salt act as a preservative? Increasing the quantity of salt in the food changes its composition .Due to the presence of salt in the food, osmosis takes place. As a result, water comes out of the food. When there is no or less water in the food, the micro organisms are not able to grow and the food becomes safe. Salt also reduces the activity of enzymes, thus preventing the food from getting spoilt.
Salt is used as a preservative in pickles, chatni, sauce, canned food, etc. Salt is rubbed on fish which helps to preserve it.

(b) Sugar: Can you think of some preserved foods where sugar is used as a preservative?
Yes, these are jams, jellies, murabbas, squashes. Like in pickle, chatni, etc., sugar is added to these foods not only for taste but also as a preservative. The proportion of sugar has to be correct to protect them from spoiling.
How does sugar prevent food spoilage? The sugar dissolves in the water available in the food item. This results in less water being available for the growth of micro-organisms. Hence the food becomes safe.

(c) Acids: Can you think of any sour food items used as preservative? These are lemon juice, vinegar, citric acid, etc. Vinegar is used to preserve onions, tomato ketchup; lemon juice is used in pickles; citric acid is used in squashes. Acids increase the acidic content of food items, thus preventing the activity and growth of micro-organisms.

(d) Oils and spices: These are used as preservatives in pickles. Can you think of a spice which is commonly used as a preservatives? Yes, mustard powder is one of them. It prevents the growth of micro organisms, thus preventing spoilage. When pickle is made at home, have you observed that oil is poured to cover the mango, lemon or other vegetables which are being pickled. The oil acts as a protective cover and has two advantages-
(i) prevents contact of micro-organisms with the food, hence they cannot spoil the food.
(ii) prevents contact of air with food, hence the micro organisms cannot grow and spoil the food.⁶

Chemical preservatives
(a)Sodium Benzoate & Benzoic Acid
• The two are related because sodium benzoate produces benzoic acid once dissolves in water
• Anti-microbial properties
• Most effective on low pH, below 4.5
• Best for pickling preservatives since vinegar is used which is sour which means low pH.
• Naturally found in cranberries, prunes, plums, cinnamon, ripe olives, and apples.
• Sodium Benzoate is used in fruit products, relishes, beverages, dressings, salads, pies & pastries fillings, icing, olives.
• It is against yeast, molds, and some bacteria
• Use low level to avoid off-flavor ⁷
• Maximum level allowed by Law is 0.1%

Examples:¹
E211          sodium benzoate
E220          sulphur dioxide
E223          sodium metabisulphite
E236          methanoic acid
E260          ethanoic acid( the important chemical in vinegar)
E280          propanoic acid.

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4.3.  Emulsifier and stabilizers:
The purpose of emulsifiers and stabilisers is to facilitate the mixing together of ingredients that normally would not mix, namely fat and water. This mixing of the aqueous and lipid phases is then maintained by stabilisers. These additives are essential in the production of mayonnaise, chocolate products and fat spreads, for example. The manufacture of fat spreads (reduced-fat substitutes for butter and margarine), has made a significant contribution to consumer choice and dietary change, and would not be possible without the use of emulsifiers and stabilizers.
In addition to this function, the term stabiliser is also used for substances that can stabilise, retain or intensify an existing colour of a foodstuff and substances that increase the binding capacity of the food to allow the binding of food pieces into reconstituted food.
The increasing awareness of problems with food allergy and intolerance has led to the requirement to state the source of certain emulsifiers on food labelling. For example, lecithin derived from soya is not suitable for an individual with an allergy to soya, therefore clear labelling of the source of the ingredient is vital to aid in consumer choice of products safe for individuals with specific dietary requirements.²

Examples:¹
E410      carob bean gum
E440      pectin
E466      sodium carboxymethylcellulose

4.4   Coloures:
Colours are used to enhance the visual properties of foods. Their use is particularly controversial, partly because colour is perceived by some as a means of deceiving the consumer about the nature of the food, but also because some of the most brightly coloured products are those aimed at children. As with all additives, their use is strictly controlled and permitted only where a case of need is proven, e.g. to restore colour that is lost in  processing, such as in canning or heat treatment; to ensure consistency of colour; and for visual decoration.
Over the last three decades, repeated studies have conclud­ed that modest doses of synthetic colors added to foods can provoke hyperactivity and other disturbed behavior in children.
In April 2008, Britain’s Food Standards Agency (FSA) advised the food industry to voluntarily ban the use of six common synthetic food dyes by 2009 (UK food dyes on which the Food Standards Agency has called for a vol­untary ban include: Tartrazine, Quinoline Yellow, Sunset Yellow, Carmoisine, Ponceau 4R, and Allura Red)⁸
Naturally derived colorants do not have the same color intensity as synthetics, and some of these are less economical on a dosage basis; however, technological advances have reduced this performance gap. Improved blending of naturally derived colorants to maximize attributes helps to improve stability compared to using a straight (single) natural colorant.

Examples:⁸
FD&C Blue No. 1 – Brilliant Blue (dye and lake)
FD&C Blue No. 2 – Indigotine (dye and lake)
FD&C Green No. 3 – Fast Green (dye and lake)
FD&C Red No. 3 – Erythrosine (dye)
FD&C Red No. 40 – Allura Red (dye and lake)
FD&C Yellow No. 5 – Tartrazine (dye and lake)
FD&C Yellow No. 6 – Sunset Yellow (dye and lake)

4.5  Sweetener:
Sweeteners perform an obvious function. They come in two basic types – “bulk” and “intense”, and are permitted in foods that are either energy-reduced or have no added sugar. They are also sold direct to consumers as “table-top” sweeteners– well-known to dieters and diabetics.

Low-calorie sweeteners (sometimes referred to as non-nutritive sweeteners, artificial sweeteners, or sugar substitutes) are ingredients added to foods and beverages to provide sweetness without adding a significant amount of calories. In fact, they can also play an important role in a weight management program that includes both good nutrition choices and physical activity.
Low-calorie sweeteners have a long history of safe use in a variety of foods and beverages, ranging from soft drinks to puddings and candies to table-top sweeteners.

In the U.S., the most common and popular low-calorie sweeteners permitted for use in foods and beverages today are:
• acesulfame potassium (ace-K)
• aspartame
• neotame
• saccharin
• sucralose

Low-calorie sweeteners do not cause or increase the risk of cancer.
All approved low-calorie sweeteners can besafely consumed by the general population, includingpeople with diabetes, pregnant women and children
Low-calorie sweeteners do not cause or increase the risk of other health conditions.
Low-calorie sweeteners can help with weight management and do not cause weight gain.¹⁰

Acesulfame-Potassium (Ace-K) –
Ace-K is a combination of an organic acid and potassium, and is 200 times sweeter than sugar. It is a popular sweetener used in low-calorie sweetener blends to create an optimal flavor profile in foods and beverages.

Aspartame –
Discovered in 1965, aspartame is used in foods and beverages in more than 100 countries worldwide. FDA approved aspartame for use in foods in 1981, followed by beverages in 1983. In 1996 it received approval as a general purpose sweetener.
Aspartame provides four calories per gram. However, it is used in very small amounts, contributing negligible calories to the diet. Aspartame is approximately 180 times sweeter than sugar. It is not heat-stable and is not suggested for use in cooking or baking.

Neotame –
Neotame is also a derivative of aspartic acid and phenylalanine. It is approximately 7,000 to 8,000 times sweeter than sugar, although some report a sweetening power of up to 13,000 times that of sugar. It is partially absorbed, but rapidly metabolized and excreted from the body.

Saccharin –
Originally discovered in 1878, saccharin is considered the oldest of the low-calorie sweeteners approved for food and beverage use. Today saccharin is still used safely and widely and often in combination with other sweeteners. Saccharin is 300 times sweeter than sugar, although some reports have indicated it can be up to 700 times sweeter than sugar. It is not broken down by the body and is eliminated without providing any calories. Saccharin is heat stable, therefore making it suitable for cooking and baking.¹⁰

Examples¹
Sorbitol              -    E420
Mannitol            -    E421
Acesulfame K   -    E950
Aspartame          -   E951
Cyclamic acid    -   E952
Isomalt               -   E953
Saccharin           -   E954
Sucralose           -   E955
Thaumatin           - E957
Neohesperidine   -   E959
Maltitol              -    E965
Lactitol              -      E967

4.6  flavor enhancer
Flavour enhancers are substances that have no pronounced flavour or taste of their own but which bring out and improve the flavours in the foods to which they are added. Although salt has a distinctive taste of its own and is not classed as a food additive, it is in fact the most widely used flavour enhancer.

Classification

Natural flavouring substances
Natural flavouring substances means flavouring substances obtained from plant or animal raw materials, by physical, microbiological or enzymatic processes. They can be either used in their natural state or processed for human consumption, but cannot contain any nature-identical or artificial flavouring substances.

Nature-identical flavouring substances
Nature-identical substances means flavouring substances that are obtained by synthesis or isolated through chemical processes, which are chemically identical to flavouring substances naturally present in products intended for human consumption. They cannot contain any artificial flavouring substances.

Artificial flavouring substances
Artificial flavouring substances means flavouring substances not identified in a natural product intended for human consumption, whether or not the product is processed.¹¹

examples of flavouring substances:
natural, e.g. citral;
natureidentical, e.g. vanillin;
artificial, e.g. ethyl vanillin

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5.     FOOD ADDITIVE SAFETY
The question of food additive safety is one that has received widespread attention in recent years.While literally thousands of studies, conducted throughout the world, attest to the overall safety of additives as they are used in the food supply, it is important to understand the relativity of safety and be careful when using the words “toxic,” “harmful” and “safe.” Any substance whatsoever has the potential for being harmful. The controlling factor in determining the safety of substances in our diet is quantity. Anything consumed in excessive amounts will be toxic, eventhose substances with which we are most familiar and in daily contact. There are no exceptions; anything from vitamins to water, if consumed in large enough quantities, will cause illness, and sometimes fatal effects.
Toxic’ is a relative term. The effects of any chemical substance or mixture depend not only on is composition and basic properties, but also on dosage, route and conditions of exposure, susceptibility of the organism exposed and other factors. It is not possible to categorize all chemical substances as ‘toxic’ or ‘non-toxic’ although some are more toxic than others during normal conditions of use and exposure. however, the toxins that appear in the following  “ natural” foods, which, in quantities typically found in the diet, are routinely handled by the body without harm:
*Average per capita human consumption of potatoes is 119 lbs. per year. This amount contains 9700 mg. of solanine – a single dose injection of which would kill a horse.³

6. TESTING METHODS
The ability to test for relative safety has progressed a long way since the early 1900’s and Dr. Wiley’s (then Chief Chemist, Department of Agriculture) “poison squad” – a group of twelve men who tested, by consumption, the safety of foods and food additives. Now both industry and government evaluate safety through comprehensive testing and accepted scientific procedures. No longer do we base safety considerations on “poison squads” or only upon the safe and effective use of a substance over a long period of time. For direct additives, the first step is for the manufacturer (and/or others seeking approval) to conduct a battery of tests and chemical analyses to determine that a substance does what it is intended to do, and that it can be measured accurately in minute quantities. These tests assure that the usage can be checked, and that unwanted manufacturing by-products are adequately removed. A wide variety of animal tests are used to estimate the safety of a direct additive in the human diet. Because no animal is a perfect model, a number of different tests are used and the totality of scientific evidence must be evaluated and cautiously interpreted as to its relevance to man. Studies on metabolism, genetic toxicity, carcinogenicity and reproduction are among those required.
Then further animal testing is conducted on at least two different types of laboratory animals.
Large doses over extended periods of time are administered to determine whether an additive may be harmful over a lifetime of use. While rats and mice are commonly used, often a non-rodent is also studied. In addition to animal research, “in vitro” – test tube – studies are conducted: however, their results, although useful, are difficult to interpret and extrapolate to man. Of course, adequate human studies, when available are most significant. Detection of indirect additives and impurities has reached incredibly precise proportions allowing for identification of infinitesimally minute amounts of substances in foods. Just a few years ago the ability to test for one part per million concentration was considered quite a scientific feat, while now we can not only test for 1 part per million (1 ppm) but 1 part per billion (1 ppb) and even 1 part per trillion (1 ppt)!.
The reason for developing such refined methods of testing is to be able to determine margins of safety. As discussed earlier, the quantity consumed is the important factor in determining a potential hazard of any food substance. Therefore, if we know a substance may be hazardous at a particular dose and can determine the quantity of use to achieve the desired effect.³

REFERENCES
1)wahyan.edu.hk/paulsir/handout/form5/8-1_Food_additives.pdf                
2)rsc.org/ebooks/archive/free/.../BK9781905224500-00001.pdf
3)foodadditives.org/pdf/Food_Additives_Booklet.pdf
4)acudoc.com/Antioxidants.PDF
5)ocw.jhsph.edu/courses/humannutrition/PDFs/Lecture8.pdf
6)nios.ac.in/SecHmscicour/english/LESSON_05.pdf
7)crees.org/forms/25.pdf
8)iatp.org/iatp/publications.cfm?refid=105204
9)ddwilliamson.com/.../naturalcolors/synthetic-colorants-natural-alternatives-US.pdf.
10)foodinsight.org/Content/6/LCS%20Fact%20Sheet_11-09.pdf.
11)fantastic-flavour.com/files.../flavourings_user_guide_0802.pdf..

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